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Facts: A Filipino student, Arman, commits cyber-fraud by hacking a Singapore-based server while he is in Singapore. He returns to the Philippines and is charged there for the same act. (a) State the controlling doctrine on the territorial reach of Philippine penal laws. (b) For Arman’s act abroad, explain whether Philippine penal law may apply to punish him, and what limits or conditions attach to any extraterritorial application. (c) If the act had been committed in Manila instead of abroad, explain whether Philippine penal law would apply and why.